A History of the American Biological Safety Association
Part III: Safety Conferences 1978-1987
Richard H. Kruse and Manuel S. Barbeito
MEDI, Inc., Lexington, Kentucky
USDA (Retired), Frederick, Maryland
INTRODUCTION
The biological safety conferences continue to grow in attendance and the number of presentations. Many topics that were matters of concern at the first biological safety conference in 1955 continue to interest those attending: biosafety cabinets; air sampling; laboratory-acquired illnesses; and decontamination. Improvements have occurred as described in A History of the American Biological Safety Association Part I (Barbeito 1997) and Part II (Kruse, 1997). Today, more infectious microorganisms are studied by an increased number of scientists and laboratory personnel, but laboratory-acquired infections have decreased. Biological safety personnel must aggressively continue to pursue basic and applied research applicable to biosafety. Class II biosafety cabinets are replacing Class I biosafety cabinets. Data presented in biological safety conferences have been instrumental in significant changes in microbiological safety. The biological safety conference's eulogy to Dr. Wedum in the form of an Annual Memorial Lecture had an auspicious beginning with Dr. Karl M. Johnson delivering the first lecture.
21st Biological Safety Conference
The 21st Biological Safety Conference, sponsored by the Center for Disease Control Hepatitis Laboratories, Phoenix, was held on November 6-8, 1978 at the Safari Hotel Convention Center, Scottsdale, Arizona. After a Sunday night cocktail party many attendees left to enjoy Mexican food.
Dr. John Jaugstetter, Centers for Disease Control (CDC), discussed a revision of the Classification of Etiological Agents on the Basis of Hazards. It included an expanded list of etiologic agents, a detailed explanation of containment levels, and a list of containment levels commensurate with the risk of the etiologic agent
Vinson Oviatt, World Health Organization (WHO), discussed four special programs established in 1976 by WHO: laboratory safety elements; emergency services; shipment of infectious substances; and maximum containment laboratories. A WHO brochure Public Health Aspects and Safety Regulations in General Experimentation was published.
Dr. John Forney described changes over the past 18 years at CDC. Most important were modifications of buildings, procedural changes, and the added number of personnel handling infectious material. In 1977, an extensive survey and questionnaire received 99% response from bench microbiologists who believed training programs needed strengthening. Most employees were not cognizant of the Safety Manual.
Ralph Kuehne described the special containment facilities available at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) to study highly infectious viruses (Ebola, Lassa, Machupo, Marburg, etc.) for which there are no effective prophylaxis or therapy. USAMRIID is the only facility in the United States capable of transporting, isolating, and providing medical care to persons exposed to high hazard microbials.
Dr. Martin Favero, CDC-Phoenix, discussed disagreements among space scientists in bringing Martian "soil" to earth.* Some scientists believe the risks are enormous, some state contamination technology is inadequate and join others stating the mission should be cancelled. Dr. Favero believes the United States has the capability and technology to fully contain a sample from Mars.
James Lauer described 15 clinical laboratory cases of hepatitis that occurred in 1977 at the University of Minnesota in high-risk areas; eight in the hemodialysis-transplantation area, and seven in the clinical laboratories. Of 76 samples of environmental surfaces, 26 were positive for hepatitis B surface antigen.
Dr. Waldemar F. Kirchheimer delivered the 2nd Arnold G. Wedum Memorial Lecture entitled, Recent Advances in Experimental Leprosy. Dr. Kirchheimer was Dr. Wedum's assistant until he joined the staff of the U.S. Public Health Service's (USPHS) hospital in Carville, Louisiana. He compared treatment of leprosy from Biblical times to today's patient care. Dr. Kirchheimer described the hospital and laboratories at Carville, and discussed new research he was instrumental in perfecting. The nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus Linn.) always gives birth to identical quadruplets, and provides a system for the study of immunological factors which control development of the disease. Mycobacterium leprae has been cultivated to 109 viable organisms in the armadillo.
Dr. Jerome Landy, Germfree Laboratories, Inc., described a new total exhaust laminar flow biosafety cabinet in which air is not recirculated.
John Harb, University of North Carolina (UNC), discussed the effectiveness of formaldehyde gas at various humidities and contact times. Paper strips impregnated with Bacillus subtilis subsp. niger (BG) were placed in a desiccator and exposed to formaldehyde gas at relative humidities (RH) of 33%, 53%, and 75% and contact times of 1, 4, 7, 10, 16, and 24 h. He reported that only at 75% RH and 10-h contact time were 106 BG spores completely killed. At 33% and 53% RH, complete kill did not occur even after 24-h contact time. The discussions that ensued suggested that, if his data were correct, everything learned or practiced on decontamination procedures up to this time was wrong.
Mr. Everett Hanel, Jr., described the methodology used to successfully decontaminate an animal holding facility in which animals infected with slow viruses had been housed for several years. Sodium hypochlorite adjusted to pH 11.5 was used as a primary decontaminant followed by depolymerization of paraformaldehyde.
22nd Biological Safety Conference
The 22nd Biological Safety Conference, sponsored by National Cancer Institute (NCI), met on October 15, 1979 in Bethesda, Maryland. Dr. Robert Stevenson, Litton Bionetics, moderated a seminar on the Ethical and Legal Issues in the Laboratory Workplace. The participants: Samuel Gorovitz, University of Maryland; Sheldon Samuels, AFL-CIO; Estell Ramey, Georgetown University School of Medicine; and Daniel Singer, Attorney, Washington, DC, described hazards found in the scientific laboratory in addition to etiological agents. They further stated that laboratory personnel faced inconsistent regulations and real risks that might interfere with their scientific freedom and privacy rights.
Dr. Previn Blatt described the development of safety guidelines at Yale University. Individual investigators had assumed responsibility for safety until 1970 when a university-wide Safety Advisory Committee developed uniform policies and procedures. In 1978, the Department of Biological Safety was established.
Dr. Hotse Bartlema, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany, described a U-shaped tunnel approximately 19 m with a diameter of 30 cm that is used to test HEPA filters.
On Tuesday afternoon, the safety conference moved to Fort Detrick for the Dr. Arnold G. Wedum memorial. The event took place in front of Building 550, the headquarters of Industrial Health and Safety Division when the Post was under the command of the U.S. Army Chemical Corps. Dr. William Payne, NCI, introduced Everett Hanel, Jr., Frederick Cancer Research Center (FCRC), who introduced the platform guests. After a brief statement, Major General Kenneth Dirks, U.S. Army, presented the dedicatory flag to Mrs. Wedum and Eric, Dr. Wedum's son. Dr. Donald S. Frederickson, Director of National Institutes of Health (NIH), gave the dedication speech followed by remarks of Dr. Arthur Upton, Director of NCI. Many friends of Dr. Wedum and personnel who worked in Industrial Health and Safety Division attended.
After the ceremony, a trip to Cozy Restaurant in Thurmont, Maryland. After dinner, Dr. Clarence J. Gibbs, NIH, delivered the 3rd Arnold G. Wedum Memorial Lecture entitled, Transmissable Virus Dementias of Man, an Overview. The viruses causing kuru, Creutzfeld-Jakob disease, and scrapie are called "subacute spongiform virus encephalopathies." They are very resistant to ultraviolet and ionizing radiation, heat, and formaldehyde. The diseases may have an incubation period of 90 months before the onset of symptoms. Clinical, pathological, and epidemiological data on the diseases were discussed.
Dr. David Stuart, The Baker Company, described concentration of toluene vapor in a Class II, Type B biosafety cabinet. His data showed work should be performed toward the rear of the work area.
Dr. Jerry Walker, Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), discussed the escape of foot and mouth disease virus from a high containment laboratory that infected normal cattle on the island. After all the animals were transferred into laboratories, all areas were disinfected. An investigation showed that the pressure differential in a high containment laboratory had changed from negative to positive, and the filters leaked around the gaskets. Another probable source of viral escape may have been from liquid seepage under a temporary partition erected during construction.
Vinson Oviatt, WHO-Geneva, discussed essentials for developing biosafety programs. Programs were implemented in member countries, and occupationally-acquired illnesses now will be reported to WHO.
23rd Biological Safety Conference
The 23rd Biological Safety Conference, sponsored by MEDI, Inc., was held on October 12-15, 1980 at the Campbell House Inn, Lexington, Kentucky.
Everett Hanel, Jr., presented the first 25 years of biosafety conferences. Dr. Jerry Tulis reviewed the first year of the Bioscience Program at University of North Carolina's (UNC) graduate educational program established under Chairman John E. Larsh, Jr., in the School of Public Health, to confer M.P.H. and Dr.P.H. degrees. Dr. Albert Balows, CDC, and President, American Society for Microbiology (ASM) stated that the failure of many scientists to adhere to microbiological safety practices is a pressing problem.
Kenneth Brow, NCI, analyzed time and cost required to build or renovate small laboratory suites, research animal facilities, P-3 laboratories, and large multistoried buildings. Dr. Howard Larsh, University of Oklahoma, described procedures used to decontaminate and remove 15-year-old wooden safety cabinets from the Missouri State Chest Hospital in Mount Vernon that had been used for isolating and identifying M. tuberculosis and pathogenic systemic fungi such as Histoplasma capsulatum and Blastomyces dermatitidis. Dr. Arthur DiSalvo described South Carolina's 93,000 ft2 Public Health Laboratory Building. The laboratories have one-pass airflow with a separate air system for the animal quarters. Stanley Nagle, NIH, described the extensive modifications needed to construct the P-4 laboratory in Building 550, Fort Detrick. Dr. Sol Miller, Abbott Laboratories, described new safety laboratories with entry and exit air locks to each module, HEPA-filtered supply air, HEPA- and charcoal-filtered exhaust air.
Back then...
An old-fashioned North Carolina Bar-B-Que was planned for dinner on Monday. Saturday night people met at Bourbon Arabians. The pigs were slowly cooked over hickory embers from dusk Saturday to dawn Sunday. A good time was had by Irene and Mac Vandiviere; Cathy, Markita and Norm Goodman; Eleanor and Ken Schatzle; Connie and Serf Guerra; Eve and Roy Hubbard; the Bob Rushs; the Desmond Robinsons; Dan Lieberman; Jim Sullivan; and Bob Everett who joined the cooks Ann and Tom Christenberry. Sunday, at noon, many sleepy individuals enjoyed lobsters, compliments of The Baker Company, cooked and served by chef Robert Rush.
Dr. Susan Rubinstein, University of Alberta, discussed Canada's laboratory safety regulations and guidelines. In 1977 the Medical Research Council published guidelines for recombinant DNA molecules, animal viruses and cells, and demanded compliance by researchers they funded. Dr. Desmond Robinson, Department of Health and Social Security, London, discussed methods by which the United Kingdom's safety recommendations were initiated, implemented and enforced. Wally Gunthrope, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, described the British Standard for Microbiological Safety Cabinets. Dr. Hotse Bartlema described the European Molecular Biology Laboratory's procedure for biotesting laminar flow biosafety cabinets. The protocol varies from the procedures employed in the United States and England in that a person sits in front of the cabinet during aerosolization of the test organism. He believed this procedure to be more realistic than the use of a metal cylinder on the work surface. Dr. Barbara Page-Roberts, Vickers Limited, described a negative pressure, flexible heavy gauge plastic isolator system that provided primary containment similar to a Class III biosafety cabinet.
Dr. Alfred Wallbank, University of Manitoba, showed that formaldehyde (2 to 10%) was effective against poliovirus (Sabin L Sc, 2ab) in 8.5% bovine serum albumin (Difco, Detroit, MI). Skim milk (Difco, Detroit, MI) neutralized the reaction.
Dr. Riley D. Housewright, former Scientific Director of Fort Detrick, and Past President of ASM, presented the 4th Arnold G. Wedum Memorial Lecture entitled, Safe Drinking Water and Health. He discussed his long-time association with Dr. Wedum and the many meetings in which more protection for personnel was advocated by Dr. Wedum.
Dr. Peter Gerone, Delta Regional Primate Research Center, described hazards of using experimental animals in relation to their potential impact on human health, the quality of scientific work, and environmental contamination. Dr. S. S. Kalter, Southwest Foundation for Research and Education, discussed experiments with primates, and stated that a vigorous and rigid husbandry protocol must be implemented to prevent animal and human illness. Dr. A.E. New, NCI, discussed the increased use of specific pathogen-free rodents in research. Gnotobiotic animals were defined by Dr. Perry Mathews, National Animal Disease Center (NADC), and he discussed the many ways these animals were used in research.
Lola Bilowich, M.D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, reviewed the many problems she encountered while establishing a biological safety program.
Irene Melvin, University of Kentucky Medical Center, presented a history of tuberculosis. Case rates show that tuberculosis was far from being eradicated and remains a hazard to personal health and financial security. She emphasized the need for more specific skin test materials.
Dr. Emmett Barkley, NIH, described revisions to the Guidelines for the Laboratory Use of Chemical Carcinogens, issued June, 1979, that recommend three procedures and safeguards applicable to the laboratory to minimize exposure to carcinogenic substances.
At the business meeting, Dr. Emmett Barkley appointed Edward Lazear, Jerry Tulis, David Stuart, Kenneth Jones, Manuel Barbeito, and Richard Kruse to serve on a steering committee charged with coordinating plans for the formation of a formal safety organization.
24th Biological Safety Conference
The 24th Biological Safety Conference, sponsored by the University of Georgia, CDC, and U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, was held on October 5-7, 1981 at the Center for Continuing Education, University of Georgia, Athens.
Lowell Muse, University of Georgia, described the results from monitoring personnel exposed to isotopes of tritium and iodine. Dr. Julio Rivera, NIH, discussed the protocols for medical surveillance from NIH's Guidelines for Laboratory Use of Chemical Carcinogens. Lola Bilowich reviewed the genotoxic potential of cancer therapeutic agents. A study, using mutagenic activity in urine, confirmed that pharmacy personnel were absorbing these agents. Mary Woebkenberg, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), described a passive monitoring method based on Fick's law of diffusion.
Dr. Marshall Levine, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, in Considerations in Developing a Medical Surveillance Program for Laboratory-Associated Diseases, stated that programs should be designed as an integral part of the overall laboratory safety program, and should include: establishment of goals, close cooperation between health and safety departments, health education, and periodic evaluation of program effectiveness.
Stephen Pijar summarized 15 years experience with biological safety cabinets, from Class I biosafety cabinets manufactured in the early 1950s to the current Class II biosafety cabinets. Dr. Melvin First, Harvard School of Public Health, described a 2-week course Certification of Biological Safety Cabinets sponsored by NIH. Ten classes were held between June 1979 and August 1981, and 115 attendees completed written and practical examinations. Additional courses will be offered.
Back then...
Monday night, everyone traveled to Charlie William's Lodge where Georgia Bar-B-Que was served. The fellowship between the students of Dr. Tulis' class mingling with the "old timers" was outstanding.
Janet Macher, Harvard School of Public Health, discussed studies on the collection efficiency of old and new biological air samplers.
Joseph Songer reported that biohazards exist in all environments. They may be toxic or allergenic substances. Examples are: animal toxins from snakes, bees, wasps, and ants; plant toxins from poison ivy, oak, and sumac; allergens from fungi in air conditioners; and grain dust and fungi from hay on farms. Norman Petersen described the increased risk of viral hepatitis experienced by clinical laboratory personnel handling blood and blood derivatives. Although many biological and biomedical assays are now automated, care must still be taken while unpacking, decapping, transferring, and disposing of specimens.
Tuesday night, after a social hour and dinner, the 5th Arnold G. Wedum Memorial Lecture entitled, Responsibility for Scientific Response to Nonspecific Judgements in the Public Arena was delivered by Dr. Fred Davidson, President of the University of Georgia. He said, "Honest responses and straightforward answers always should be given. Never cover up an accident or illness, but be truthful and timely."
25th Biological Safety Conference
The 25th Biological Safety Conference, sponsored by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Harvard School of Public Health, and Harvard University, was held on November 4-6, 1982 at 57 Park Plaza Hotel, Boston.
The Keynote Address Genetic Manipulation with Retroviral Vectors was presented by Nobel Laureate Dr. David Baltimore, Director, Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research. The retroviruses first came into prominence as causes of cancer in animals. Their genetic strategy made them ideal vectors for carrying new genetic information into cells.
C. A. Schlegel, The Baker Company, discussed the handling of antineoplastic agents. A horizontal airflow clean work station should never be used. She stated that an assessment of risk should be performed to: identify and characterize the agents used; describe normal activities; and identify possible exposure. Appropriate disposal of antineoplastic-chemotherapy waste was essential.
Keith Allner discussed the Centre for Applied Microbiology and Research that formerly was the Ministry of Defense Establishment, United Kingdom. Their work was oriented toward health care and public health research involving vaccine production, biotechnology, genetic manipulation, environmental microbiology, and biological safety.
E. C. Cole, UNC, using a 6-stage Andersen Sampler, demonstrated the presence of high concentrations of bacteria and fungi in a poultry farm's coop air.
Back then...
After the business meeting, the attendees traveled to the New England Aquarium for a reception. It was extremely interesting and the sights were, as one attendee stated, "terrific."
Dr. John Richardson, CDC, discussed risk assessment and precautions against HIV. The illness, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), first came to medical attention in 1981, and is characterized by immunosuppression of undetermined origin, a biopsy-proven Kaposi's sarcoma, or culture-proven opportunistic infection in previously healthy individuals.
C. Welty, Channing Laboratory, Boston, discussed the booster effect of serial tuberculin skin tests. The booster phenomenon increased as an individual aged. The mean age of the subjects was 64 yr. At a VA Hospital, 457 patients received the initial PPD skin test with 106 positive reactions. At two weeks, to evaluate booster effect, 322 patients, who initially had negative PPD skin tests, received the second PPD testing. The booster effect is an increase in size of the tuberculin skin test reaction by serial skin testing thought to be due to stimulation of the immune skin test. The booster effect was at least twice that observed in younger populations. Having worked with experts in mycobacteriology, namely Drs. Mac Vandiviere and George Kubica, Richard Kruse asked if these data were realistic because PPD is a mixture of several tuberculo-proteins, each of which could cause a delayed hypersensitivity reaction.
Dr. D. A. Giard described the large-scale Cell Culture Center established in 1974 at MIT. The facility produces approximately 400 L of suspensions and 2,000 roller bottles per month.
Friday was poster session day. Fran Wimberly, University of Georgia, displayed a micro-computer system that provided current status, location, date of last survey, and air velocity of chemical fume hoods on the campus. Robyn Gershon displayed an outline of the expanded medical surveillance program at Yale University. Shigeo Hino, Nagasaki University School of Medicine, displayed a modified biosafety cabinet for handling animals. Thomas Allen, Flanders Filters, displayed a technique to improve safety when contaminated HEPA filters are removed and bagged. Dr. Robert Olcerst, Mercy College, New York, displayed results of microbial assays performed on the surface of microscope oculars and showed that pathogenic, or potentially pathogenic, microorganisms were recovered from 28% of the oculars. Robert Gross, Medical Repair Laboratories, compared the sensitivity of the DOP leak test, the halogen leak test, and other leak tests for Class II biosafety cabinets and concluded that the halogen leak test was unnecessarily stringent. He claimed that DOP could be used satisfactorily for leak testing the biological safety cabinet but NSF rejected the procedure.
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